Resonating Humankindness: Agency in an Interconnected World

Interpersonal Influence and Manipulation (2010, 2017)

In my initial exploration, I delve into the subtle yet pervasive influence of seemingly insignificant aspects of our behavior. Building upon the concept of "situationism," I argue that our moral conduct is shaped considerably by contextual factors rather than solely by internal character. This insight is illustrated by the phenomenon of pharmaceutical companies influencing doctors' prescribing practices through subtle gifts. If our behavior is so deeply influenced by situational factors, how can we maintain ethical agency and avoid manipulation?

I then turn to classical Confucianism, specifically the Analects of Confucius. Confucianism, with its emphasis on self-cultivation, understands individuals as inherently interconnected and places great significance on seemingly minor details of demeanor and comportment. Confucius believed that subtle aspects of our behavior—such as posture, tone of voice, and facial expressions—act as signals that influence how others react to us, shaping the trajectory of our interactions. I call these "microethical" situations (following Morton 2002). By being mindful of these signals, we can encourage more cooperative and positive outcomes in our interactions.

If we try to shape our influence on others toward positive ends, we must grapple with concerns about manipulation. While a precise definition of manipulation is elusive, it generally involves subtly influencing others without their awareness, potentially undermining their autonomy. If our influence on others is inevitable (simply by being in their midst), how can we ensure that it is ethical and beneficial?

In a subsequent paper (2017), I propose that, instead of attempting to avoid influencing others (which is ultimately impossible), we should strive to become aware of and shape the influence we inevitably exert. Drawing on the work of Mengzi and Xunzi, I highlight how Confucianism copes with influence through the use of shared rituals that structure behavior. I argue that the Confucian approach to influencing others is justifiable when it aims to promote prosocial values like harmony, care, or compassion.

The Value of Doubt (2014, 2015)

Recognizing the power of our behavior and its effects on others, we must consider how we judge others' character. Our actions are always influenced by a complex web of situational factors. Consequently, it may be misguided to attribute someone's bad behavior solely to their internal character or disposition, as their actions may be influenced by social pressures or our own behavior towards them. Moreover, our judgments are subject to well-known cognitive biases, including:

• The actor-observer asymmetry: Our tendency to readily acknowledge situational factors in accounting for our own bad behavior while overlooking them in others.
• The negativity bias: Negative information is processed more easily and remembered more readily than positive information.
• Confirmation bias: Our tendency to seek out and interpret information in ways that confirm our preexisting beliefs about others, even if those beliefs are initially inaccurate.

I argue (2015) that we should be cautious about forming negative judgments about others' character based on isolated instances of their behavior, especially when we don't know them well. While it's natural to assume the worst when people act badly, there are good epistemic reasons to give others the benefit of the doubt. Indeed, we find such notions articulated in classical Confucian texts such as the Mengzi (or Mencius).

I acknowledge that there are times when it's appropriate to make negative judgments about others, particularly when someone has repeatedly engaged in negative behavior in stable situations (e.g. at parties or department meetings). However, I argue that our default stance towards others, especially those we don't know well, should be one of generosity and a willingness to consider alternative explanations for their behavior. By cultivating a habit of giving others the benefit of the doubt, we can avoid unnecessary conflict, foster positive relationships, and create conditions for greater cooperation.

In a related paper (2014), I acknowledge that such an approach comes with considerable cognitive demands. Self-cultivation and giving others the benefit of the doubt requires self-regulation, which can be taxing. However, I note that in cultures where interpersonal influence is acknowledged and people are mindful of their impact on others, individuals seem to be less fatigued by efforts at self-regulation. This mindfulness may also yield other long-term benefits in the pursuit of personal projects.

Me-Knowledge and Ethical Arbitration (2023)

I have argued that by understanding how we are perceived by others, we can anticipate the potential impact of our actions and adjust our approach accordingly. This can help us avoid unintended negative consequences and ensure that our influence is aligned with our ethical goals. I call this perspectival self-knowledge, or me-knowledge (though I remain unsure whether that was a good idea). Consider a common predicament: a situation where achieving an ethically desirable outcome requires buy-in from others who are reluctant to cooperate. In such cases, simply presenting compelling reasons might not be sufficient to gain assent, as individuals may have diverging values or different weightings of shared values.

By me-knowledge, I refer to a specific kind of self-knowledge that involves understanding how one is perceived by others. Me-knowledge is not about knowing one's own beliefs or mental states, but rather about developing an awareness of how one's person—one's demeanor, words, and actions—are experienced by others in specific contexts—the ‘me’ that others experience. This allows us to anticipate how others might react to our interventions, emphasizing the importance of shu 恕 (conscientious perspective-taking) and zhong 忠 (thoughtful diligence) in cultivating me-knowledge. Through practices like observation, reflection, and seeking feedback from peers, individuals can develop a more nuanced understanding of how their behavior impacts those around them.

Through the cultivation of such knowledge, I suggest that Confucian ethical agents, rather than seeking to impose their own perspectives, strive to act as "ethical arbitrators" who facilitate understanding and accommodation among differing viewpoints by inviting trust. This requires not only presenting sound reasons but also skillfully navigating social dynamics and understanding, thoroughly, the perspectives of those involved.

Finally, I address a worry: How can we cultivate me-knowledge without becoming overly self-conscious or narcissistic? Such a project has its pitfalls, which I examine t rough a dialogue in the Zhuangzi, a Daoist text, which critiques a Confucian student's approach to persuading a tyrannical ruler. The student, Yan Hui, focuses on the rightness of his own position and the soundness of his arguments, failing to consider how he himself might be perceived by the ruler. I highlight how this lack of perspective-taking ultimately undermines his efforts.

Agency within a Superorganism (2018)

Early Confucians envisioned society as a superorganism, with individuals functioning as interconnected nodes within a larger entity. This concept appears in passages from the Analects and the Great Learning, which depict society not as a mere aggregation of individuals, but as interconnected networks with central nodes of varying influence.

To ground this idea, I draw on key concepts from network theory—nodes, networks, and influence dynamics. I connect these to the Confucian concept of dé, which I interpret as "effective nodal influence." By cultivating dé, individuals, especially those in authority, can positively influence their surrounding network, creating a ripple effect that fosters social harmony.

However, the superorganism model faces challenges, particularly in influencing central nodes—often those at the apex of social hierarchies. From a Confucian perspective, self-absorbed political leaders pose the most pressing concern. This highlights a limitation of the Confucian model. Research indicates that those in power are less susceptible to influence while wielding greater influence over others. This dynamic, I argue (following de Bary), presented a significant obstacle for Confucian thinkers, who were often insulated from influencing these powerful figures.

Despite these limitations, the Confucian concept of the superorganism offers valuable insights for today. By viewing ourselves as interconnected nodes within various social networks, we can become more attuned to our influence—both conscious and unconscious—on those around us. This awareness, I contend, can foster greater self-reflection and a more mindful approach to our interactions.

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